Venous valves are found within native venous vessels and are used to assist in returning blood back to the heart in an antegrade direction from all parts of the body. The venous system of the leg includes the deep venous system and the superficial venous system, both of which are provided with venous valves that are intended to direct blood toward the heart and prevent backflow or retrograde flow, which can lead to blood pooling or stasis in the leg in the setting of incompetent valves. Incompetent valves can also lead to reflux of blood from the deep venous system to the superficial venous system and the formation of varicose veins. Superficial veins, which include the greater and lesser saphenous veins, have perforating branches in the femoral and popliteal regions of the leg that direct blood flow toward the deep venous system and generally have a venous valve located near the junction with the deep system. Deep veins of the leg include the anterior and posterior tibial veins, popliteal veins, and femoral veins. Deep veins are surrounded in part by musculature tissue that assists in generating flow due to muscle contraction during normal walking or exercising. Veins in the lower leg have a static pressure while standing of approximately 80-90 mm Hg that may reduce during exercise to 60-70 mm Hg. Despite exposure to such pressures, the valves of the leg are very flexible and can close with a pressure drop of less than one mm Hg.
FIGS. 1A-1B are schematic representations of blood flow through a healthy native valve 104 within a vein 100. Venous valve 104 controls blood flow through lumen 102 of vein 100 via leaflets 106, 108. More particularly, venous valve 104 opens to allow antegrade flow 112 through leaflets 106, 108 as shown in FIG. 1A. Venous valve 104 closes to prevent backflow or retrograde flow 114 through leaflets 106, 108 as shown in FIG. 1B.
Veins typically in the leg can become distended from prolonged exposure to excessive pressure and due to weaknesses found in the vessel wall causing the natural venous valves to become incompetent leading to retrograde blood flow in the veins. Such veins no longer function to help pump or direct the blood back to the heart during normal walking or use of the leg muscles. As a result, blood tends to pool in the lower leg and can lead to leg swelling and the formation of deep venous thrombosis, phlebitis, and varicose veins. The formation of thrombus in the veins can further impair venous valvular function by causing valvular adherence to the venous wall with possible irreversible loss of valvular function. Continued exposure of the venous system to blood pooling and swelling of the surrounding tissue can lead to post phlebitic syndrome with a propensity for open sores, infection, and may lead to possible limb amputation.
Chronic Venous Insufficiency (CVI) occurs in patients that have either deep and/or superficial venous valves of their lower extremities (below their pelvis) that have failed or become incompetent due to congenital valvular abnormalities and/or pathophysiologic disease of their vasculature. As a result, these patients suffer from varicose veins, swelling and pain of the lower extremities, edema, hyper pigmentation, lipodermatosclerosis, and deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Such patients are at increased risk for development of soft tissue necrosis, ulcerations, pulmonary embolism, stroke, heart attack, and amputations.
FIG. 2 is a schematic representation of blood flow through an incompetent venous valve. Retrograde flow 114 leaks through venous valve 104 creating blood build-up that eventually may destroy the venous valve and cause a venous wall bulge 110. More specifically, the vessel wall of vein 100 expands into a pouch or bulge, such that the vessel has a knotted appearance when the pouch is filled with blood—a varicose vein. The distended vessel wall area may occur on the outflow side of the valve above leaflets 106, 108 as shown in FIG. 2, and/or on the inflow side of the valve below leaflets 106, 108. After a vein segment becomes incompetent, the vessel wall dilates such that the fluid velocity decreases within the incompetent vein segment, which may lead to flow stasis and thrombus formation in the proximity of the venous valve.
Repair and replacement of venous valves presents a formidable problem due to the low blood flow rate found in native veins, the very thin wall structure of the venous wall and the venous valve, and the ease and frequency of which venous blood flow can be impeded or totally blocked for a period of time. Surgical reconstruction techniques used to address venous valve incompetence include venous valve bypass using a segment of vein with a competent valve, venous transposition to bypass venous blood flow through a neighboring competent valve, and valvuloplasty to repair the valve cusps. These surgical approaches may involve placement of synthetic, allograft and/or xenograft prostheses inside of or around the vein. However, such prostheses have not been devoid of problems leading to thrombosis and/or valve failure due to leaflet thickening/stiffening, non-physiologic flow conditions, non-biocompatible materials and/or excessive dilation of the vessels with a subsequent decrease in blood flow rates.
Percutaneous methods for treatment of venous insufficiency are being studied, some of which include placement of synthetic, allograft and/or xenograft prosthesis that suffer from similar problems as the surgically implanted ones discussed above.
In addition, venous valve formation from autologous tissue has been disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,902,576 to Drasler et al. Drasler et al. suggests use of autologous tissue with blood contact of an endothelial layer to eliminate biocompatability issues and also alleviate thrombus formation due to low flow. However, methods of in situ venous valve formation according to Drasler et al. are surgical in nature and involve re-shaping a distended, diseased vein, which carries with it the risk of rupture or tearing of the thin-walled structure, or thrombosis because of extensive surgical resection.
In view of the foregoing, there exists a need for methods and apparatus to restore normal venous circulation to patients suffering from venous valve insufficiency, wherein the methods and apparatus may be used in percutaneous, minimally invasive procedures. Further, such percutaneous methods and apparatus should attend to biocompatibility and thrombosis issues that current approaches do not adequately address.